Take-back and refilling schemes do exist in several European countries (Institute for Local Self-Reliance 2002), including PET bottles as well as glass, but they are elsewhere generally considered a niche activity for local businesses rather than a realistic large-scale strategy to reduce packaging waste. There is increasing public awareness on the need for sustainable production and consumption. For this reason, it is important to develop effective on-the-go and office recycling collection schemes if overall collection rates for plastic packaging are to increase. endstream endobj startxref 6 0 obj The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Technological advances in recycling can improve the economics in two main waysby decreasing the cost of recycling (productivity/efficiency improvements) and by closing the gap between the value of recycled resin and virgin resin. The higher eco-efficiency for bottle recycling is because of both the more efficient process for recycling bottles as opposed to mixed plastics and the particularly high emissions profile of virgin PET production. Conversely, PET in a PVC recycle stream will form solid lumps of undispersed crystalline PET, which significantly reduces the value of the recycled material. endobj Some shift away from single-use plastic carrier bags to reusable bags has also been observed, both because of voluntary behaviour change programmes, as in Australia (Department of Environment and Heritage (Australia) 2008) and as a consequence of legislation, such as the plastic bag levy in Ireland (Department of Environment Heritage and Local Government (Ireland) 2007), or the recent banning of lightweight carrier bags, for example in Bangladesh and China. Approaches to increasing the recycling of films and flexible packaging could include separate collection, or investment in extra sorting and processing facilities at recovery facilities for handling mixed plastic wastes. Feedstock recycling of polyolefins through thermal-cracking has been performed in the UK through a facility initially built by BP and in Germany by BASF. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> These systems generally use Fourier-transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy for polymer type analysis and also use optical colour recognition camera systems to sort the streams into clear and coloured fractions. The plastics industry has developed considerably since the invention of various routes for the production of polymers from petrochemical sources. 0 Biodegradable plastics can also be composted, and this is a further example of tertiary recycling, and is also described as organic or biological recycling (see Song et al. as labels and closures). Two key economic drivers influence the viability of thermoplastics recycling. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal %PDF-1.7 % Plastics have substantial benefits in terms of their low weight, durability and lower cost relative to many other material types (Andrady & Neal 2009; Thompson et al.
Therefore, degradation rates vary considerably between landfills, terrestrial and marine environments (Kyrikou & Briassoulis 2007). 214 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<2C4E2DB2FC67FD459C0FDC44F89B5835><5C13EFD526C66F4688C0FD737BF97D5E>]/Index[191 55]/Info 190 0 R/Length 110/Prev 737183/Root 192 0 R/Size 246/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream Pre-consumer plastic waste such as industrial packaging is currently recycled to a greater extent than post-consumer packaging, as it is relatively pure and available from a smaller number of sources of relatively higher volume.
Here, we will primarily consider recycling of plastics into products that would otherwise have been produced from virgin polymer.
In addition, labels and adhesive materials should be selected to maximize recycling performance.
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Hence, wider implementation of policies to promote the use of environmental design principles by industry could have a large impact on recycling performance, increasing the proportion of packaging that can economically be collected and diverted from landfill (see Shaxson et al. The amount of material going into the waste-management system can, in the first case, be reduced by actions that decrease the use of materials in products (e.g. Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight and durable materials, which can readily be moulded into a variety of products that find use in a wide range of applications. In the UK, the Waste Resource Action Programme (WRAP) has run an initial study of mixed plastics recycling and is now taking this to full-scale validation (WRAP 2008b). 
Technologies for reducing PVC contaminants in PET flake include froth flotation (Drelich et al. A major challenge for producing recycled resins from plastic wastes is that most different plastic types are not compatible with each other because of inherent immiscibility at the molecular level, and differences in processing requirements at a macro-scale. 9 0 obj It has been estimated that PET bottle recycling gives a net benefit in greenhouse gas emissions of 1.5 tonnes of CO2-e per tonne of recycled PET (Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW) 2005) as well as reduction in landfill and net energy consumption. The volumes of post-consumer waste are, however, up to five times larger than those generated in commerce and industry (Patel et al. 2009b). Most local authorities or material recovery facilities do not actively collect post-consumer flexible packaging as there are current deficiencies in the equipment that can easily separate flexibles. Recycling is clearly a waste-management strategy, but it can also be seen as one current example of implementing the concept of industrial ecology, whereas in a natural ecosystem there are no wastes but only products (Frosch & Gallopoulos 1989; McDonough & Braungart 2002). The .gov means its official.
<>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> 2000). The same logic applies to durable consumer goods designing for disassembly, recycling and specifications for use of recycled resins are key actions to increase recycling. PET resin can be broken down by glycolysis, methanolysis or hydrolysis, for example to make unsaturated polyester resins (Sinha et al. Extended producer responsibility can also be enacted through deposit-refund schemes, covering for example, beverage containers, batteries and vehicle tyres.
endobj % 14 0 obj endobj 2009b, Fig 1). 5 0 obj Around 4 per cent of annual petroleum production is converted directly into plastics from petrochemical feedstock (British Plastics Federation 2008). There are also environmental and health concerns associated with their emissions. 8 0 obj The effectiveness of post-consumer packaging recycling could be dramatically increased if the diversity of materials were to be rationalized to a subset of current usage. As the manufacture of plastics also requires energy, its production is responsible for the consumption of a similar additional quantity of fossil fuels. The losses of rejected material and the value of the recycled resins would be enhanced. A case study of Kathmandu. Table3 provides data on some environmental impacts from production of virgin commodity plastics (up to the factory gate), and summarizes the ability of these resins to be recycled from post-consumer waste. However, the mixed plastics recycling scenario still has a positive net benefit, which was considered superior to the other options studied, of both landfills and energy recovery as solid refuse fuel, so long as there is substitution of virgin polymer. As a consequence of all the above trends, the market value of recycled polymer and hence the viability of recycling have increased markedly over the last few years. It is possible to include biodegradable plastics in aerobic composting, or by anaerobic digestion with methane capture for energy use. This indicates a historical growth rate of about 9 per cent p.a. Other separation techniques such as air elutriation can also be used for removing low-density films from denser ground plastics (Chandra & Roy 2007), e.g. endstream endobj 192 0 obj <>>> endobj 193 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC/ImageI]/Properties<>/Shading<>/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/Thumb 107 0 R/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 612.0 792.0]/Type/Page>> endobj 194 0 obj <>stream
Bring-schemes tend to result in low collection rates in the absence of either highly committed public behaviour or deposit-refund schemes that impose a direct economic incentive to participate. Product design for recycling has strong potential to assist in such recycling efforts. Feedstock (chemical) recycling technologies satisfy the general principle of material recovery, but are more costly than mechanical recycling, and less energetically favourable as the polymer has to be depolymerized and then re-polymerized. manufacture into a re-usable container, which once entering the waste stream is collected and recycled into a durable application that when becoming waste in its turn, is recovered for energy.
Terminology for plastics recycling is complex and sometimes confusing because of the wide range of recycling and recovery activities (table2).
All LCI data are specific to European industry and covers the production process of the raw materials, intermediates and final polymer, but not further processing and logistics (PlasticsEurope 2008a). There is considerable scope for re-use of plastics used for the transport of goods, and for potential re-use or re-manufacture from some plastic components in high-value consumer goods such as vehicles and electronic equipment. %%EOF
Even degradable plastics may persist for a considerable time depending on local environmental factors, as rates of degradation depend on physical factors, such as levels of ultraviolet light exposure, oxygen and temperature (Swift & Wiles 2004), while biodegradable plastics require the presence of suitable micro-organisms. The new PMC design is here! National Library of Medicine Sorting performance can be maximized using multiple detectors, and sorting in series. Terminology used in different types of plastics recycling and recovery. 2009). 
In the UK, total use of plastics in both domestic and commercial packaging is about 40 kg per person per year, hence it forms approximately 78% by weight, but a larger proportion by volume of the MSW stream (Waste Watch 2003). A recent LCA specifically for PET bottle manufacture calculated that use of 100 per cent recycled PET instead of 100 per cent virgin PET would reduce the full life-cycle emissions from 446 to 327 g CO2 per bottle, resulting in a 27 per cent relative reduction in emissions (WRAP 2008e). Another area of innovation has been in finding higher value applications for recycled polymers in closed-loop processes, which can directly replace virgin polymer (see table3). Sink/float separation in water can effectively separate polyolefins (PP, HDPE, L/LLDPE) from PVC, PET and PS. If recycled plastics are used to produce goods that would otherwise have been made from new (virgin) polymer, this will directly reduce oil usage and emissions of greenhouse gases associated with the production of the virgin polymer (less the emissions owing to the recycling activities themselves). These are the price of the recycled polymer compared with virgin polymer and the cost of recycling compared with alternative forms of acceptable disposal. Recycling of packaging materials has seen rapid expansion over the last decades in a number of countries. Before Historically, this has required very significant subsidies because of the low price of petrochemicals in contrast to the high process and plant costs to chemically recycle polymers. Coupled with efforts to increase the use and specification of recycled grades as replacement of virgin plastic, recycling of waste plastics is an effective way to improve the environmental performance of the polymer industry. This confirms that packaging is the main source of waste plastics, but it is clear that other sources such as waste electronic and electrical equipment (WEEE) and end-of-life vehicles (ELV) are becoming significant sources of waste plastics. Collection of used plastics from households is more economical in suburbs where the population density is sufficiently high to achieve economies of scale. 
For organic materials like plastics, the concept of recovery can also be expanded to include energy recovery, where the calorific value of the material is utilized by controlled combustion as a fuel, although this results in a lesser overall environmental performance than material recovery as it does not reduce the demand for new (virgin) material. Recycling of plastics is one method for reducing environmental impact and resource depletion. Sorting of co-mingled rigid recyclables occurs by both automatic and manual methods. For such customers, confirmation of recycled content and suitability for recycling of the packaging can be a positive attribute, while exaggerated claims for recyclability (where the recyclability is potential, rather than actual) can reduce consumer confidence. 2 0 obj 2009b). These only have slight deterioration in clarity from virgin PET, and are being used at 3050% replacement of virgin PET in many applications and at 100 per cent of the material in some bottles. The Mixed plastics, the least favourable source of recycled polymer could still provide a net benefit of the vicinity of 0.5 tonnes of CO2-e per tonne of recycled product (WRAP 2008c).
Recycling of this non-bottle packaging has become possible because of improvements in sorting and washing technologies and emerging markets for the recyclates. 7 0 obj Automated pre-sorting is usually sufficient to result in a plastics stream separate from glass, metals and paper (other than when attached, e.g. [Ffq\{MBZrk Wl\a"4obM`-[aIWD`HS4>w)/q-?wYTi~NH+Yu48noZxpH0%TvR'lw-iyUk0mk%jm*oSVTL ks=v%E_O:w . 15 0 obj Around 4 per cent of world oil and gas production, a non-renewable resource, is used as feedstock for plastics and a further 34% is expended to provide energy for their manufacture. There are additional issues associated with variations in the quantity and quality of supply compared with virgin plastics. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Recycling can therefore decrease energy and material usage per unit of output and so yield improved eco-efficiency (WBCSD 2000). So, while over a decade ago recycling of plastics without subsidies was mostly only viable from post-industrial waste, or in locations where the cost of alternative forms of disposal were high, it is increasingly now viable on a much broader geographic scale, and for post-consumer waste. For example, a small amount of PVC contaminant present in a PET recycle stream will degrade the recycled PET resin owing to evolution of hydrochloric acid gas from the PVC at a higher temperature required to melt and reprocess PET. 2009b). 13 0 obj Growth in collection of plastic bottles, by bring and kerbside schemes in the UK (WRAP 2008d). Conversely, there is limited recycling of multi-layer/multi-component articles because these result in contamination between polymer types. These systems also have the capability to separate polymer by type or grade and can also separate polyolefinic materials such as PP from HDPE. %%EOF Plastic materials can be recycled in a variety of ways and the ease of recycling varies among polymer type, package design and product type. In order to have successful recycling of mixed plastics, high-performance sorting of the input materials needs to be performed to ensure that plastic types are separated to high levels of purity; there is, however, a need for the further development of endmarkets for each polymer recyclate stream. endstream endobj 991 0 obj <>>>/Filter/Standard/Length 128/O(*T7*yKfGEq)/P -1052/R 4/StmF/StdCF/StrF/StdCF/U(\nd`*y^! )/V 4>> endobj 992 0 obj <>/Metadata 128 0 R/Outlines 234 0 R/PageLayout/OneColumn/Pages 985 0 R/StructTreeRoot 265 0 R/Type/Catalog>> endobj 993 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC]/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 595.28 841.89]/Type/Page>> endobj 994 0 obj <>stream To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds toupgrade your browser. Here, we briefly set recycling into context against other waste-reduction strategies, namely reduction in material use through downgauging or product reuse, the use of alternative biodegradable materials and energy recovery as fuel. <>/XObject<>>>/Type/XObject/Subtype/Form/BBox[0 0 595 842]/Matrix[1 0 0 1 0 0]/FormType 1>>stream Post-consumer plastic waste generation across the European Union (EU) was 24.6 million tonnes in 2007 (PlasticsEurope 2008b).
The price of oil has increased significantly in the last few years, from a range of around USD 25 per barrel to a price band between USD 50150 since 2005. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> This is not surprising as it is effectively reversing the energy-intensive polymerization previously carried out during plastic manufacture. However, biodegradable plastics also have the potential to complicate waste management when introduced without appropriate technical attributes, handling systems and consumer education. Prevention and minimization and environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, E-Waste Recycling In India Bridging The Gap Between The Informal And Formal Sector, Waste plastic extruder: literature review 1 Polymer Properties Table Polymer Properties, Manage E-Waste for Sustainable Development, TWENTY-EIGHT NATIONAL CONVENTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS AND NATONAL SEMINAR ON Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development A-18 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE MANAGEMENT -A CASE STUDY OF PUNE, HOUSEHOLD PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE BOLGATANGA MUNICIPALITY.pdf, Recycling of industrial waste and its impact on the environmental quality costs, Ten Year Municipal Ecological Solid Waste Management Plan (CYs 2010-2020) for Camaligan, Camarines Sur, Philippines, 10 Yr. Municipal Ecological Solid Waste Management Plan (Revised) for the Municipality of Camaligan, Camarines Sur, Philippines, The Effect of Inconvenience of Recycling and the Importance of Recycling toward Recycling Behavior, Laws That Enable Partnerships: The Case of Proyecto Pensilvania in Bogot, Colombia, Economic Feasibility of Recycling Programs, Review of extended producer responsibility: A case study approach, THE MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRONIC WASTE: A COMPARITIVE STUDY ON INDIA AND SWITZERLAND. Here the collection rate of PET bottles was 74 per cent of sales, compared with 36 per cent of sales in other states with kerbside collection only.
High disposal costs are an economic incentive towards either recycling or energy recovery. This is a large topic that cannot be covered in this paper, except to note that it is desirable that compostable and degradable plastics are appropriately labelled and used in ways that complement, rather than compromise waste-management schemes (see Song et al.
245 0 obj <>stream Chemical recycling of PET has been more successful, as de-polymerization under milder conditions is possible. A number of European countries including Germany, Austria, Norway, Italy and Spain are already collecting, in addition to their bottle streams, rigid packaging such as trays, tubs and pots as well as limited amounts of post-consumer flexible packaging such as films and wrappers. 2009; Ryan et al. 8600 Rockville Pike 2008. Most uses of recycled resin either blend the recycled resin with virgin resinoften done with polyolefin films for non-critical applications such as refuse bags, and non-pressure-rated irrigation or drainage pipes, or for use in multi-layer applications, where the recycled resin is sandwiched between surface layers of virgin resin. This is evident in an industrial scale with re-use of containers and pallets in haulage (see Thompson et al. Consumption of plastics and waste generation by sector in the UK in 2000 (Waste Watch 2003).
2009). Various methods exist for flake-sorting, but traditional PET-sorting systems are predominantly restricted to separating; (i) coloured flakes from clear PET flakes and (ii) materials with different physical properties such as density from PET. One contribution of 15 to a Theme Issue Plastics, the environment and human health. In western Europe, plastic waste generation is growing at approximately 3 per cent per annum, roughly in line with long-term economic growth, whereas the amount of mechanical recycling increased strongly at a rate of approximately 7 per cent per annum.
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