The second experiment ran for four growing seasons (2017 through 2020) and is referred to as the State Risk Comparison Study.. An alternative way to evaluate the environmental effects of integrated pest management: pesticide risk indicators. 291, 123134. Plant Dis. Building a pesticide application program around lower risk fungicides while still incorporating lower risk resistance management chemistries, such as fluazinam, is a way to both reduce risk but decrease the likelihood of resistance development. (2011) found that most US golf course superintendents interviewed did not think that pesticides present a personal health risk. doi: 10.2134/jeq2003.4470, Hall, R (1984). Pesticides are critical tools for golf course managers to maintain healthy and economically profitable golf course playing surfaces.
The authors are aware of no regulations in the US that require golf courses to track pesticide risk, or that set an upper limit on golf course pesticide risk. - Powered by. (2021) 10 scale. Front. The fourth method used was the Pesticide Risk Tool (PRT). Carcinogenic and genotoxic potential of turf pesticides commonly used on golf courses. In the State Risk Comparison Study, the 25%-SA treatment reduced risk by 75% compared to the Wisconsin statewide average but only reduced costs by 10%.
(2011). Control of dollar spot of creeping bentgrass caused by an isolate of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa resistant to benzimidazole and demethylation-inhibitor fungicides. This was more than two times greater than the cost of the CP-SKM program ($2,446 USD per hectare) and 1.6 times the cost of CP program ($3,172 USD per hectare). 53, 35563562. 64:167174. Taken together, these results indicate that pesticide risk can be significantly reduced on golf courses in the US Midwest without sacrificing dollar spot control. Can. Total Environ. Sci. The fungicide program submitted by one of the 23 golf courses referenced above that had an HQ score closest to the statewide average was chosen as the baseline for use in this study and is referred to as the 100% state average (SA) risk program. Dollar spot is the most common and costly disease for golf course superintendents in temperate US climates to control, but the repeated pesticide applications to control dollar spot can increase fungal resistance and risk both human and environmental health. To account for this, many pesticide risk indicators have been developed to account for both exposure and toxicity for use in agricultural situations (Greitens and Day, 2006; Oliver et al., 2016; Kniss, 2017; Schulz et al., 2021). In addition, voluntary sustainability standards in golf such as Audubon International and GEO-Certified could require their golf courses to track pesticide risk through software such as Playbooks for Golf , which can calculate a golf course's EIQ score.
However, such metrics consider only pesticide exposure and fail to consider differences in toxicity between pesticides (Barnard et al., 1997). Dollar spot severity was assessed by counting dollar spot infection centers approximately every 14 days from May through October depending on how long the dollar spot epidemic persisted in each year. 16, 251261. The authors were involved in the development of the SKM and found that a model probability of 20% acted as an acceptable threshold to time preventative fungicide applications for dollar spot control (Smith et al., 2018). However, the four treatment programs were statistically indistinguishable in color across all 4 years of the study (Table 5). J. Environ. (2021) found that despite large reductions in pesticide risk to fish, mammals, and birds, pesticide risk to aquatic invertebrates and pollinators has increased significantly over the past 25 years in US agriculture. Routledge & CRC Press eBooks are available through VitalSource. KH and PK contributed to conceptualization, design of the study, field work, and editing paper drafts. Total Environ. Terms of use | (2021) found that pesticide risk on golf courses in the northern US was primarily caused by fungicide use, and the majority of golf course fungicide use targets dollar spot (Vargas, 2005). Food Chem. In 2019, all four treatment groups had significantly higher turf quality than the control but were not statistically distinguishable from one another. The third fungicide program, titled Reduced Risk Smith-Kerns Model (RR-SKM), also based application timing on the SKM but only used fungicides labeled as reduced risk by the Reduced Risk Program (EPA Reduced Risk Program, 2021) or products with similar chemistries and toxicity profiles as fungicides included in the Reduced Risk Program. Sci. The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s. 122, 761773. State risk comparison study treatment program, date, trade name, active ingredient, rate of application, and pesticide risk as quantified by active ingredient application rate, HQ, hazard quotient; EIQ, Environmental Impact Quotient; PRT, Pesticide Risk Tool for each product applied in the state risk comparison study. Joseph M. Vargas is Professor in the Center for Integrated Plant Systems at the Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University. The HQ model was used to defined risk levels of the State Risk Comparison study, and thus the 50%-SA treatment could include chlorothalonil. 8 ,14865. doi: 10.1038/ncomms14865, Knopper, L. D., and Lean, D. R. S. (2010). The State Risk Comparison field experiment was conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility on Focus' creeping bentgrass maintained as a golf course fairway. Food Life Sci. Long-term trends in the intensity and relative toxicity of herbicide use. Informa UK Limited, an Informa Plc company. A. (2018). Models developed by Mills and Rothwell (1982); Hall (1984); Ryan et al. doi: 10.2134/agronmonogr56.c21, Kniss, A. R (2017). Where n equals the total number of pesticide applications each year; W is the weight of pesticide product (mg); A is the area of application (ha); and Rfdp is the reference dose associated with the pesticide product (mg pesticide product/kg rat). B. Spotlight on Statistics: Sport and Exercise. One method to estimate pesticide risk of pesticide application programs is to sum the annual weight of pesticide active ingredient applied (Kerns and Tredway, 2013). 134, 173182. J. Agricult. Sci.
218, 815. doi: 10.1094/P.D.-67-627. (2008) found concentrations of PCNB in golf course streams, a byproduct of the fungicide quintozene, at concentrations toxic to developing fish. For the SKM Reduced Risk study the length of the epidemic at both University Ridge and the O. J. Noer Research Facility were 143 days in 2014 and 158 days in 2015. This does not mean that the HQ model is faulty or incorrect, but rather is an indication that the various models are measuring pesticide risk of different environmental endpoints. Total Environ. New York, NY: Wiley. In the remaining 3 years of the study, however, the four treatment groups were statistically distinguishable. Thus, reducing the risk of fairway dollar spot applications is one of the most effective means to reduce overall golf course pesticide risk. The program calculates pesticide risk using a pesticide risk indicator similar to EIQ. doi: 10.1021/es060964b. Individual plot area measured 1.8 by 3.0 m and the four treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), turfgrass color, and turfgrass quality (TQ) for the State Risk Comparison Study conducted at the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility in Verona, Wisconsin USA between 2017 and 2020. Turfgrass Soc. Feedback | A. Qual.
Med. Across all years and locations of the study, turf color, as quantified by NDVI (2014 and 2015) and CI (2016), was significantly higher for the treatment programs (CP, CP-SKM, RR-SKM) compared to the control (Table 4). The SKM helps reduce the number of overall fungicide applications targeting dollar spot by eliminating applications when there isn't a threat of symptom development, and it has become widely utilized by the golf course industry (Smith et al., 2018; Sapkota et al., 2022). Bekken et al. Base EIQ values were obtained from the EIQ Calculator website (https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/). The CP-SKM treatment had the same or lower disease compared to the CP in all site-years except for University Ridge Hole #18 in 2015 and the OJ Noer in 2014. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, United States, University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
is the most common golf course turfgrass disease in temperate climates around the world, and on cool-season turfgrass in North America dollar spot is caused by C. jacksonii (Smiley et al., 2005; Salgado-Salazar et al., 2018; Sapkota et al., 2022). Fungus Diseases of Turfgrass, I: Diseases Primarily Occurring on Golf Course Turfs. However, which treatment program had the highest turf color value varied by year and location.
41, 10381043. Inhalation health risk to golfers from turfgrass pesticides at three Northeastern U.S. sites.
Zhang, Q., Ji, C., Yan, L., Lu, M., Lu, C., and Zhao, M. (2016). Kearns, C. A., and Prior, L. (2013).
It's almost like having your own private turfgrass consultant sitting right on your bookshelf. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was calculated using the trapezoidal method (Campbell and Madden, 1990) and standardized based on the length of the epidemic in each year and at each location. Pesticide risk as quantified by the PRT Risk Points per application was reduced by 51% between the RR-SKM and the CP program, and 56% between the RR-SKM and the CP-SKM program. (2008).
An additional application of chlorothalonil was added to this treatment compared to the CP because of concerns with overall efficacy of the program and development of fungicide resistant organisms. In summary, our study utilizes four models to estimate of pesticide risk, three of which are meant to represent pesticide risk to the environment generally, and the fourth which is meant to estimate pesticide risk to mammals specifically. To calculate the statewide average, 50 golf courses in Wisconsin, USA were selected at random out of the nearly 500 golf courses in the state. Disease Management Strategies for Home-Lawn Grasses. System requirements for Bookshelf for PC, Mac, IOS and Android etc. Plant Dis. Available online at: https://www.ngf.org/golf-industry-research/ (accessed April 6, 2022). Environ. Feng, M., Schrlau, J. E., Snyder, R., Snyder, G. H., Chen, M., Cisar, J. L., et al. PLoSONE 13, e0194216. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. There are ~25 million golfers in the United States who play on 16,752 golf courses (Royal Ancient (R&A), 2019; National Golf Federation (NGF), 2021). The study was conducted in 2014, 2015, and 2016 on approximately the same area in each year. Denmark is a case study of how pesticide risk can be monitored across the golf industry. Despite golf courses only covering less than a half percent the land area as US agriculture, US golf courses account for 10% of total chlorothalonil use (Van Scoy and Tjeerdema, 2014). Pesticide risk indicators have the added benefit of being able to quickly assess risk of a high number of sites regardless of geographic location at a lower cost than field-based sampling and ecological risk assessment methods. With one exception, there was no significant difference in dollar spot AUDPC values among the fungicide programs in 3 of 4 years despite the programs varying widely in their pesticide risk profile. Mowing height during each year at both the O. J. Noer Turfgrass Research Facility and University Ridge Golf course for the Smith-Kerns Model (SKM) reduced risk study and the state risk comparison study. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, golf is the second most popular participation sport in the US behind basketball (Woods, 2017). Food Syst. Soil invertebrates, critical to nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and soil morphology are often overlooked in pesticide risk assessment.
Sci. Wong, H., and Haith, D. A. For the average US golf course with 11.4 ha of fairways, the annual cost of the RR-SKM program would be ~$58,000 USD, compared to $36,200 for the CP.
Avaialble online at: https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/sports-and-exercise/pdf/sports-and-exercise.pdf (accessed April 06, 2022).
Left uncontrolled, tan-colored foci 25 cm in diameter can interrupt the playability and the aesthetics of the turfgrass playing surfaces (Smiley et al., 2005). Golf Around the World.
Critique: Exceptionally well written, organized and presented, "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" is an impressively comprehensive, nicely illustrated, and informative textbook that is especially and unreservedly recommended for professional, college and university library Agriculture/Horticulture collections and supplemental studies curriculums. Additional fungicide programs with an HQ value that equaled 75, 50, and 25% of the statewide average were developed by substituting individual products with lower HQ scores and are referred to as the 75%-SA, 50%-SA, and 25%-SA programs. A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides. Chlorothalonil inhibits mouse ovarian development through endocrine disruption.
You'll learn about cool and warm season grasses, growing conditions, new diseases, symptoms, and identification and management techniques.
Unfortunately, dollar spot populations can quickly develop resistance to SDHI fungicides and practitioners must use them wisely or risk developing SDHI resistant strains on their golf course (Sang et al., 2015; Popko et al., 2018). Professor Latin developed "A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides" to be a thoroughly 'user-friendly' guide based on his belief that if turf managers understand how and why fungicides work (and sometimes fail), they will use these products more effectively and efficiently and communicate disease control issues with greater confidence. Turfgrass quality results were analyzed using the Kruskal Bekken et al. Golf courses in Wisconsin spend on average $42,000 on pesticides annually (Bekken et al., 2021). While the RR-SKM program had significantly lower pesticide risk than the other two pesticide application programs in the study, the estimated cost of the program was $5,049 USD per hectare. (2021) reviewed 400 studies of soil invertebrates and 2,800 tested parameters (the effect of a specific pesticide on a specific soil invertebrate) and found that 70.5% of tested parameters showed negative effects, 1.4% showed positive effects, and 28.1% showed no effect.
Table 2.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-06746-9_4. According to all five pesticide risk indicators utilized in this study, the CP-SKM had the highest pesticide risk, the CP had similar but slightly lower risk, and the RR-SKM had far lower risk than the other two programs (Figure 1). Detecting the transport of toxic pesticides from golf courses into watersheds in the Precambrian shield Region of Ontario, Canada. Chlorothalonil is often repeatedly applied during the summer months in Midwestern climates to manage a broad range of fungal diseases and to suppress fungicide-resistant dollar spot populations. *Correspondence: Paul L. Koch, plkoch@wisc.edu, https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591, https://nysipm.cornell.edu/eiq/calculator-field-use-eiq/, Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2022.881591/full#supplementary-material, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program, http://www.golfcourseindustry.com/article/gci0115-golf-state-industry-report-2015/, https://www.ngf.org/golf-industry-research/, https://www.randa.org/TheRandA/AboutTheRandA/DownloadsAndPublications, http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf, https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-science-and-assessing-pesticide-risks, https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2017/sports-and-exercise/pdf/sports-and-exercise.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Hs `UWSe8 Zi4IPSc],drMD)4J. Pesticide risk for each golf course was quantified using the hazard quotient (HQ) model (Equation 1). (2021) (Equation 1). doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.026, Keywords: turfgrass, hazard quotient (HQ), Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ), ecological risk assessment (ERA), Pesticide Risk Tool, fungi, plant disease, fungicide, Citation: Bekken MAH, Hockemeyer KR, Soldat DJ and Koch PL (2022) Reducing Pesticide Risk Associated With Dollar Spot Management on Golf Course Turfgrass. (1992). (2018). doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.47.3.422, Salgado-Salazar, C., Beirn, L. A., Ismaiel, A., Boehm, M. J., Carbone, I., Putman, A. I., et al.
While such high levels of risk reduction may not be possible on all golf courses given the constraints of maintenance budgets and the development of fungal resistance, significant reductions in golf course pesticide risk to control dollar spot are achievable simply by making changes in product selection. Hazardous materials on golf courses: Experience and knowledge of golf course superintendents and grounds maintenance workers from seven states.
Mole. Table 3. Disease Management Strategies for Golf Courses. However, Kniss (2017) only measured the chronic and acute risk trends to mammals. Multiple studies have detected high levels of arsenic in soils and groundwater of golf courses from the use of arsenic containing pesticides (Cai et al., 2002; Feng et al., 2005; Pichler et al., 2008). Both the SKM Reduced Risk and State Risk Comparison studies indicate that pesticide risk, as measured by a wide variety of pesticide risk indicators, associated with dollar spot management of cool season turfgrass can be reduced by more than 50% while maintaining high levels of dollar spot control. Plant Pathol. The model uses a qualitative framework to weigh risk for eleven environmental endpoints and subjectively combines these risk factors into a single score, meant to be representative of overall environmental risk.
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A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides is a current and comprehensive resource that addresses fungicides used specifically for turf disease control. doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2018.04.004, Sang, H., Hulvey, J., Popko, J. T., Lopes, J., Swaminathan, A., Chang, T., et al. doi: 10.1094/PDIS.1997.81.11.1259, Cai, Y., Cabrera, J. C., Georgiadis, M., and Jayachandran, K. (2002). However, the three other methods used to estimate risk, the AI App Rate method, FUEIQ, and PRT (Risk Points per Application, High Risks per Application) estimated that the 50%-SA treatment had the highest risk of the four treatments (Figure 2). Ecologically, Haith and Rossi (2003) found that runoff of chlorothalonil, iprodione, and pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) from fairways may routinely affect aquatic health in surrounding water bodies. Commun. These results make clear, however, that product selection plays a larger role in risk reduction than the overall number of fungicide applications because of the large differences in risk between products. Sci. 81, 12591263. The first fungicide program was titled the Conventional Program (CP) and was based on the fungicide program of a public golf course in southern Wisconsin, USA where pesticides were applied on a preventative calendar schedule. All authors contributed to the manuscript revision and approved the submitted version. Advances in turfgrass pathology since 1990, in Turfgrass: Biology, Use, and Management, eds J. C. Stier, B. P. Horgan, and S. A. Bonos, S.A (Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America), 733776.
Pesticide applications were made using a CO2-pressurized boom sprayer (R&D Sprayers, Opelousas, Louisiana) equipped with XR Teejet AI8004 nozzles pressurized to 275.8 kPa. IPM Institute of North America (2021). Golf Industry Facts. Offline Computer Download Bookshelf software to your desktop so you can view your eBooks with or without Internet access. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.106, Pichler, T., Brinkmann, R., and Scarzella, G. I. The HQ model was used to establish the four treatment programs of the State Risk Comparison Study (100%-SA, 75%-SA, 50%-SA, 25%-SA). As such, pesticides like fluazinam were incorporated into the lower risk programs beginning in 2015 as a broad-spectrum, resistance-management fungicide with a lower risk profile than the traditional broad-spectrum fungicides that have higher risk profiles, such as chlorothalonil. Copyright 2022 Bekken, Hockemeyer, Soldat and Koch.
doi: 10.1080/10937400490452697. Sci. What's New in the Second Edition?This second edition features new grasses, new diseases, and the latest research findings and practices. It is a valuable reference for information on fungicide movement in turf, fungicide mode of action, strategies for dealing with the threat of fungicide resistance, environmental and maintenance factors that influence fungicide performance, approaches to scheduling fungicide sprays, and practices for integrating chemical and nonchemical options for individual turf diseases, among other topics.This is the first book written in practical terms for turf managers and students that describes how and why fungicides work (and sometimes do not work). We would also like to thank Ariel Larson and the IPM Institute of North America for their assistance in calculating the Pesticide Risk Tool values in our studies. Pesticides and soil invertebrates: A hazard assessment. For the State Average Comparison study conducted at the O. J. Noer the length of the epidemic was 122 days in 2017, 116 days in 2018, 119 days in 2019, and 113 days in 2020. Table 4. Two consecutive field experiments were conducted to determine the efficacy of lower risk fungicide programs to suppress dollar spot development. Latin, R (2021). Int. Once a pesticide was applied, the recommended reapplication interval from that pesticide label was observed, and thereafter the next application of fungicide(s) was applied when the model again exceeded 20%. AUDPC data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means separated using Fishers least significant difference (P 0.05) using the MIXED procedure in SAS (Version 9.4, Cary, North Carolina). In addition, thanks to BASF Turf and Ornamental, Bayer CropScience, NuFarm, and Syngenta Professional Products for donating the products used in these studies. 29, 501506.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci2010.05.0296, Metcalfe, T. L., Dillion, P. J., and Metcalfe, C. D. (2008). Available online at: http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/3162/fjeldsted-sterf-pesticide-seminar-7march-2019-danish-epa-experiences.pdf (accessed April 6, 2022). In most temperate US climates fungicide applications targeting dollar spot begin in May and end in September or October (Smiley et al., 2005). However, the PRT incorporates results from in-field toxicity and exposure studies wherever possible with the goal of making risk estimates more realistic to in-field conditions. Under an agreement between the Danish Golf Union (DGU) and Danish Government, pesticide risk for each golf course component (greens, tees, fairways, and roughs) is capped every year [Scandinavian Turfgrass Environmental Research Foundation (STERF), 2019].
The second risk indicator used was the area normalized hazard quotient (HQ), calculated consistent with the methods of Bekken et al. Comparative environmental impact assessment of herbicides used on genetically modified and non-genetically modified herbicide-tolerant canola crops using two risk indicators. Technol. Two pesticide risk indicators from the PRT were utilized in this study: (1) high risks per application, and (2) risk points per application. (2005). State of the Industry Report. Experience With an Upper Limit for Total Pesticide Use on Danish Golf Courses.
MB and PK contributed to the data and statistical analyses. Altering product selection in favor of lower risk products, pesticide risk for the control of dollar spot on golf course fairways can be reduced sharply without compromising dollar spot control.
The CP-SKM treatment had three applications of chlorothalonil compared to two applications in the CP to help improve overall efficacy and resistance management of the CP-SKM treatment. The study was conducted in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020 on approximately the same location each year. A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides, 2nd Ed. Predicting diseasesthe hygrothermograph.
The number of risk points in each category for an application is then averaged across all categories to produce the risk points per application metric. 
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